We are on October 16, 1793. At the Place de la Révolution (now Place de la Concorde), an angry crowd has gathered; it is nearly impossible to move. A cart slowly makes its way through the throng. The horses in front are rearing up. People are shouting and cursing, raising their fists threateningly. On the wobbly cart stands the Queen of France and Navarre, head held high. Never has she shown herself more worthy of her high rank, recalls a witness in his diary. The woman dressed in white calmly meets the wild gazes of her subjects. She endures the humiliation without trembling or looking down. With her regal demeanor, she commands the mob’s respect.
Where she is, silence falls. For Marie Antoinette, even the dreadful cart is a throne. As she steps down from the cart with moist eyes, a hand is offered to her. The executioner, who is about to lead her to her death, whispers to her, “Courage, Madame!” She thanks him with a firm voice. She also insists on walking alone to the scaffold.
Thus, she gracefully ascends to the guillotine, as if it were the steps of the grand staircase of Versailles.
She accidentally steps on the executioner’s foot, as her tear-filled eyes make seeing difficult. “Pardon, Monsieur,” the monarch apologizes. She removes her white hat, and then her hands are bound together. Marie lays her head down on the block; her neck is already shaved. She looks up to the sky one last time and calls out, “Farewell, my children. I shall see your father again!”
The blade of the guillotine falls.
“Viva la révolution!” echoes through the crowd.
She was accused of debauchery and high treason during her trial just a day earlier. The husband of the French queen, Louis XVI, had already been executed nine months prior. The end of the ruling couple was meant to symbolize the end of the French monarchy. After all, these two individuals alone were responsible for the French people and, consequently, for all the grievances that had plagued ordinary people for years. That was at least the prevailing view at the time. “The weak king” and “the extravagant queen” are still clichés that are often employed in the portrayal of both historical figures. But a story always has two sides—and a beginning.
Madame l'Etiquette
Maria Theresa, the mother of Maria Antonia, as she was called in her homeland of Austria, decided early on to marry her daughter to a rival state. At that time, it was not uncommon to view a marriage between noble families primarily as a political act. Thus, it was quickly decided to wed the just 14-year-old girl to the one-year-older crown prince of France. After the formalities were concluded in France through a representative, plans for Maria Antonia’s journey to France began. Every effort was made for this journey. During the nearly month-long trip, numerous festivities were held, delicious meals served, balls organized, and ballets performed—only the best for the future queen.
When Maria, accompanied by 57 wagons—mostly with six horses—and a party of 235 people, arrived at the French border, she was completely undressed and led naked through a corridor to "France," where she was received by her new French maid and dressed in a French gown. The rest of her familiar entourage remained behind at the border. Except for a few familiar faces, such as the Austrian ambassador Claude von Mercy-Argenteau, who would report to Maria Theresa about Maria Antoinette in the future, she was now alone.
In the following years, Marie Antoinette enjoyed various privileges at the French court. She danced through the nights at balls, attended the opera, and spent time with her close friends, whom she chose not based on rank or position but on sympathy. This was her first mistake at the court of Louis XV. The dauphine (the French term for the female heir to the throne) particularly enjoyed masquerade balls. Although the princess could be recognized even while wearing a mask, it was easier for her to escape the expectations that came with her position. At one of these masquerade balls, she met a young student who did not recognize her at first, and with whom she immediately got along well: the Swedish Count Axel von Fersen.
Marie Antoinette's penchant for festivities was not the only thing that drew negative attention to her. Having grown up at the far less strict Austrian court, she underestimated the importance of etiquette at the French court, earning her the nickname "Madame l'Étiquette." For example, there was a special corset called "Grand Corps," which was reserved exclusively for princesses due to its stiffness, tight lacing, and the nobility it represented. Marie Antoinette refused to wear this corset in favor of the freedom of movement offered by alternatives. This caused a huge scandal at the French court, and it would not be her last.
Marie Antoinette also enjoyed accompanying her husband, the future Louis XVI, and his father, Louis Ferdinand de Bourbon, on hunting trips, forgoing the ladies' saddle that was customary at the time. As if that weren’t sensational enough, she commissioned a portrait of herself on horseback, which closely resembled a famous depiction of Louis XIV, the Sun King. Furthermore, the pose she adopted was typically reserved for male monarchs. Her unconventional behavior gave the impression that Marie Antoinette would dominate the marriage and, consequently, exert influence over political matters.
On the left is the "Equestrian Portrait of Louis XIV, King of France and Navarra (1638-1715)," oil on canvas, by René-Antoine Houasse, circa 1674.
On the right is the "Equestrian Portrait of Marie Antoinette in Hunting Attire," oil on canvas, by Louis Auguste Brun de Versoix, 1783.
When Louis XV died on May 10, 1774, Marie Antoinette ascended the throne at just 19 years old alongside her husband, Louis XVI—neither of whom felt prepared for the role. Nevertheless, the people placed great hope in the new royal couple. Marie also hoped to gain something from her new position: freedom. As the most powerful woman at the court of Versailles, no one stood above her except the king himself. However, both of their expectations were soon dashed. A queen was allowed far less leeway than a dauphine. Every small decision was interpreted as a political act, and the fresh start that the people desired never materialized. The newly crowned rulers were already struggling to maintain the status quo, making any improvements seem far off.
The garden of Eden
Although Louis XVI saw himself as a philanthropist and a friend of mankind, it quickly became clear to the public that nothing would change anytime soon, as one of his first government actions was not intended to improve the lives of the people but rather for his wife. He gifted her the "Petit Trianon," a small château built by Louis XV for his mistress, Madame Pompadour, in the gardens of Versailles, which Marie Antoinette would henceforth use as a retreat from her royal duties. Accordingly, the rooms were furnished quite simply compared to the baroque splendor of Versailles.
"Simple" was also how the lavishly designed baroque garden was to appear in the future. The "naturalness trend" that originated in England no longer fit with the rigidly laid-out beds filled with exotic plants from around the world that previous kings had shipped in for decades. The grounds were to be redesigned, and the queen spared no expense or effort. She had thousands of tons of earth moved and hired landscape architects with whom she crafted her own idyllic vision of an Eden garden. Some time later, the landscape featured gentle hills, ponds, rivers, and even a small island crowned with a pavilion.
These were not the only horrendous expenses of the young queen. She had a penchant for both jewelry and card games with monetary stakes. For instance, she purchased a pair of earrings worth 460,000 livres. By comparison, just one livre could buy a kilogram of cherries or an average lunch menu on the eve of the revolution.
Since Louis could not pay this sum immediately, he had to take out a four-year loan to cover the cost of his wife's jewels.
Her gambling losses are estimated to be similarly high: Marie Antoinette is said to have lost a total of 400,000 livres while playing.
Finance Minister, change thyself
With her questionable spending, she was indirectly working against her husband's efforts. Louis, who knew that he could not manage the financial crisis alone, hired Anne Robert Jacques Turgot, a very intelligent, scholarly Frenchman who was considered the most capable economist of his time, in the very year of his accession to the throne. Right from the start, he made his principles clear:
"No bankruptcy, no tax increases, no debt."
His strategy for this was to promote frugality in all areas. The finance minister also recognized some loopholes that the nobility exploited to enrich themselves. Turgot had grand visions but had to settle for far less, as the nobility opposed him by submitting vetoes against new legislative proposals. A significant opponent in this was the king's own brother. This made it difficult for Louis XVI to implement proper financial reforms, as he had to turn against his own kind. Marie Antoinette also heard rumors about Turgot. He allegedly wanted to undermine the hierarchy, as he demanded not tax increases for the people but taxation of the nobility. Thus, his own wife also exerted pressure on Louis, which he ultimately could not withstand. The king could not muster the necessary authority to support Turgot in enforcing his plans, which led to the latter's dismissal two years later. This decision cast an even worse light on the monarch, making him appear weak and indecisive—a stigma with which he would forever be associated.
Turgot’s next notable successor—after two other finance ministers who held their positions for only a short time—was Jacques Necker, an exceedingly wealthy banker. His approach was to borrow money through his business connections to cover the royal treasury’s deficit. He was willing to implement reforms and emphasized the importance of conveying the situation of the people to the nobility, for example, by explaining how much a loaf of bread cost. This made him very popular with the public. Additionally, he calculated all revenues and expenditures of the authorities, giving a precise picture of the financial state of the royal household for the first time.
However, expenditures were significantly higher than revenues. A scapegoat was sought and quickly found in the form of Marie Antoinette, earning her the derisive nickname "Madame Déficit." Under his leadership, France also began supporting the American Revolutionary War, which Turgot had previously thwarted due to the associated costs. Initially in secret, they supplied weapons, food, and other resources to the troops in America to weaken their rival, England. After some initial successes of the revolution were recorded, France publicly supported the Americans. Once the war was officially won, George Washington was invited to Versailles, and he accepted the invitation. Despite the contradictory values and ideals that the president represented, he was beloved at the king's court.
Despite the apparent alliance between America and France, the trade that Louis XVI had hoped for to revive the economy did not materialize. Louis XVI and his advisors had hoped that by supporting the revolution, they would have a strong trading partner on their side to counteract the catastrophic economy. However, despite the apparent alliance with France, America continued to primarily trade with England. The anticipated economic boost failed to materialize, leaving France with the costs.
Subsequently, another finance minister briefly stepped into Necker's shoes, believing that the French economy needed to be revived by its own efforts if America was not going to help. He advised the king to sell off assets and spend as much money as possible to reactivate the flow of currency. When the treasury was emptied down to the last livre and the financial situation in the country remained unchanged, the honorable gentleman realized that this strategy had perhaps been rather suboptimal.
The queenly duties
The only ray of hope: Marie Antoinette had given birth to an heir to the throne. After not having produced any offspring in the first eight years of her marriage, immense pressure rested on her. However, her first child was a girl, Marie Thérèse Charlotte. Thus, she had still not fulfilled her "queenly" duty.
After eleven years, shortly after her mother Maria Theresa passed away, Marie gave birth to her first son, Louis Joseph Xavier François. Now she had fulfilled her duty, and her popularity with the people increased. Her children also noticeably changed the character of the queen. The aforementioned trend toward naturalness captivated her, leading her to have a peasant village built in the gardens of Versailles. With chickens, goats, a dairy, and a mill, the dream of "peasant life," as many nobles of the time aspired to, became a reality.
In this artificially created idyll, Marie Antoinette also brought her children, as she saw an educational value in the rural setting. Embracing her role as a mother, she played with her children on the floor, gave them affectionate nicknames, and raised them. This was more personal engagement than most noblewomen displayed, and for a queen, it was particularly unusual. However, since she had fulfilled her duty by giving birth to an heir, she was regarded as nearly untouchable.
Marie Antoinette enjoyed her newfound authority. Although she had been queen before, her childlessness had subjected her to constant criticism. Moreover, she was younger than many other ladies at court and, to add to that, a foreigner. Especially the latter diminished her reputation among her contemporaries. The king's sisters, who had already referred to her as "Madame l'Etiquette," also called her "l'Autrichien" (pronounced l o-tr-i-ch-i-en, meaning "the Austrian"), which sounded similar to "l'autre chien" (pronounced l o-tre sch-i-a-n), meaning "the other dog" in French. A fortunate coincidence for the mockers.
Due to the financial difficulties, she also made some personal changes, such as stopping her gambling and reducing the royal horse stock.
Even in this comparatively peaceful phase of her life, she could not escape scandal. She had set trends before. The towering, conspicuous white wigs of the time, known as Poufs, remain etched in our memory to this day. The hair was whitened by the powder used to maintain their unnatural shape, one of the main ingredients of which was flour. The people derided her as extravagant: wearing food on one’s head when there was currently a severe shortage was unacceptable.
The monarch learned from this: in a portrait intended to depict her as queen, she wore only a light, white muslin dress. This too sparked envy, as such a casual attitude was deemed unworthy of a true queen. Furthermore, the import of the cotton needed for muslin fabric harmed the domestic silk industry. While a few dresses might not be a problem, one must consider that Marie Antoinette, through her fashion choices, influenced a whole group of wealthy women. The queen did not follow the trend; she was the trend. Therefore, shortly thereafter, a second portrait was created, showcasing her in royal insignia and a velvet gown.
The other women ...
. . . who managed to become famous during this time was Marie-Jeanne Bertin. She was the personal dressmaker, milliner, and fashion designer for Marie Antoinette, and with her extravagant dresses, she not only gained the favor of the queen but also became widely known throughout the country.
Bertin regularly visited the queen to present her new creations and have a little chat. She built her own independent existence, ran her own shop with thirty employees, and made house calls.
The reason I mention this lady's name in passing is simple: few others managed to become known or even wealthy during this time without a man of rank and name by their side. Not so Rose Bertin, as she was later called in England.
"Let them eat cake"
Despite the malicious tongues that tried to attribute various scandals to Marie Antoinette, the royal family continued to secure their hold on power. Two incidents, in particular, which made enemies for the queen and strained public trust, have remained in the memory of posterity – in neither was the queen involved.
The more well-known incident is a statement that the young queen allegedly made. Have you ever heard of "Let them eat cake"? It wouldn’t surprise me, as it is comparable in notoriety to the cry "Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité" (Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood). However, the common way people first encounter these two expressions is quite different. The latter is usually learned in history class when discussing the aims of the rebels in 18th-century France. It has a clear connection to history, the Enlightenment, the royal family, and of course, the Revolution.
The statement "Let them eat cake" is used much more liberally in pop culture. In particular, the song "Killer Queen" by the band Queen has contributed to the popularity of the phrase today. Like many other songwriters, the lyrics attribute this statement to Marie Antoinette (Verse 1, lines 3-4: "Let them eat cake," she says, just like Marie Antoinette).
So far, so good, but why were these four words so precarious? Picture the time in France. People are starving, lives are crumbling to dust, businesses are going bankrupt. Bread and other baked goods, especially, are in short supply due to the scarcity of flour. Not so for the rich. At the king's court, the menu does not change despite the dire situation, and there is no prospect of improvement.
Faced with the plight of the people, the queen arrogantly states, "S'ils n'ont plus de pain, qu'ils mangent de la brioche," ("If they have no bread, then let them eat brioche"), a luxury item comparable to milk rolls.
This is the origin of this statement, at least according to the contemporary witnesses who hated Marie. In reading "The Confessions," a multi-part autobiography by the Enlightenment philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau, one stumbles upon a passage in the sixth part where the author writes:
"Finally, I remembered the last resort of a great princess who, when she was told that her people had no bread, replied: 'Then let them eat brioche.'"
"However, this 'great princess' is not named, which speaks neither for nor against Marie Antoinette. The queen was only nine years old at the time of the book's publication and thus still in Austria. Additionally, it should be noted that Rousseau is 'remembering,' making it nearly impossible to attribute the unnamable sentence to Marie Antoinette. And even if Rousseau had met the princess in Austria and if little Marie had made such a statement, one cannot ascribe any arrogance to this statement, but rather should view it simply as childish naivety."
The "Necklace Affair"
The second incident is indeed a true event and is known as the "Necklace Affair." Marie, young, beautiful, and wealthy, had many admirers, but she dismissed them one after another. Cardinal Rohan was particularly eager in courting the queen's favor, making him the victim of a scam by a woman named Jeanne de Saint-Rémy, the Countess de La Motte. The countess had previously enriched herself through forged letters and similar frauds, but she had never targeted the queen herself.
The countess convinced Rohan, posing as "Madame Dubarry," that he could win over the queen with the help of a necklace that two jewelers had previously offered to Marie Antoinette, who had declined to purchase it due to its high price. "Dubarry" therefore borrowed money from Rohan in the name of the queen. She delayed the payment until the fraud was uncovered months later. Rohan was arrested but released some time later. De La Motte was first imprisoned in the Bastille and later transferred to the Salpêtrière, a hospital for beggars, the mentally ill, and others whom society wanted to keep off the streets, mostly housing women.
One participant was thus in a "mad house," while the other was released. There seemed to be no scapegoat for the immensely high debts—both then and now, the price amounts to several million euros or livres—so one was sought. And they found one, once again in the form of Marie Antoinette. Although the queen was not directly involved and had declined the purchase offer multiple times, her past extravagance made it hard for the public to believe in her innocence.
It's going - downhill – but it's going.
Due to the growing mistrust of the people, Louis XVI convened the Estates-General. A sort of crisis meeting was initiated, where the clergy in the first estate, the nobility in the second, and the common people in the third estate sent representatives for the so-called General Assembly.
However, it was not only the political situation that tested the royal couple during this time. Shortly after the necklace affair, the queen gave birth to a girl who died a few months later. Following this, she withdrew even more than before into her little castle. Entry to the Petit Trianon became extremely exclusive, reserved only for Marie's close friends. This annoyed the court of Versailles, where "privacy" was a foreign concept.
To maintain her personal space, Marie Antoinette had complicated mirror devices installed on the castle's windows, which could be opened and closed at will, thus avoiding curious gazes. This fueled rumors about her infidelity, which ultimately also leaked to the outside world. Axel von Fersen, who had previously been rumored to have a secret affair with the queen, returned from America, where he had led French troops against England a few years earlier. As a close confidant and good friend of Marie's, he was already regarded by malicious tongues as her lover. Despite the undeniable sympathy between the two, it remains unclear to this day whether they maintained a romantic relationship. This provided ample fodder for "satirical" drawings that were now published, depicting Marie Antoinette and Louis XVI as lustful fools.
However, what troubled Marie and Louis the most was the health of their son, the crown prince. Due to a bone disease, he had been forced to wear a painful metal corset for some time, which was supposed to support him, but this measure was also fruitless. At the age of seven, Louis Joseph Xavier François ultimately died from a spinal fracture.
This did not necessarily improve the mood at the General Assembly. To manage the crisis, the nobility would have to give up its privileges, essentially voting away its own rights. No one was willing to do that. Additionally, the death of his son Louis further united the nobility, as they had an understanding of the loss of the heir. Very few saw the child as a person; the greatest concern of the nobility was merely whom they should now designate as a successor. However, Louis was either unaware of this or simply indifferent, as he sought comfort—and he received it. After all, everyone tried to get on good terms with the monarch. Thus, the king lacked the authority to assert himself against the nobility.
He also dared not take a firm stand against the people. The memory of the execution of the English King Charles II was still too fresh. It served as an example for the king of what happened when one turned the people against oneself with violence. Opponents of the king used this to their advantage and placed a painting of Charles’s beheading in the king’s private chambers. His logical conclusion was to act differently than the English king and to establish a gentler style of governance. This ultimately became his downfall when an angry mob advanced on Versailles, forcing the royal family to Paris, where they were separated and imprisoned.
Although the royal couple, with the help of some loyal friends, including von Fersen, planned an escape attempt, it failed when the king was unmasked during a brief stop. As a result, the people finally lost their trust in the king and queen—both had to die for the sake of the revolution; otherwise, monarchy, injustice, and servitude would never come to an end. After a relatively short trial, Louis XVI was beheaded by guillotine on January 21, 1793. His wife, Marie Antoinette, Queen of France and Navarre, followed him shortly thereafter.
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